Throughout its long history, the Ismaili Muslim community has encountered moments of triumph and glory as well as times in which the safety and security of the community was in danger.
In the Fatimid period (909-1171 C.E.), the Ismaili Imams founded cities as Caliphs of an empire spanning the Mediterranean, and left an indelible mark on the intellectual, cultural, social and religious fabric of Muslim history and world civilisation. Through the building of social governance structures, institutions of learning and wonderful architecture, ceremonial pageantry and commemoration of festivals, the Ismaili Imams stamped their mark on the Muslim, and greater world, history. In more troubling times, the community and their Imams also suffered brutal persecution. In these moments the Imams and the community needed to live under different guises, retreating at various junctures into villages and remote mountain fortresses to safeguard their very lives.
In charting the history of the IsmailisAdherents of a branch of Shi’i Islam that considers Ismail, the eldest son of the Shi’i Imam Ja平far al-畊diq (d. 765), as his successor., one will recognise that its survival, as well as its flourishing in the modern period of world history, has rested upon the dynamic leadership of its Imams and the strength and courage of special individuals. Many times, we see and hear these voices from the lips of men. In this brief article, we will turn instead to some of the wise, powerful and influential women who shaped Ismaili history. It is these women whom we honour during this Womens History Month.
Sitt al-Mulk (d. 1023 C.E.)
During the reign of the Fatimid Imam-Caliph, al-Muizz li-Din Allah (d. 975 C.E.), the Fatimid palace witnessed the birth of a baby girl, a young princess, daughter to the next Fatimid Imam-caliph al-Aziz billah and his wife al-Sayyida. Born in 970 C.E., the young girl was given the title, Sitt al-Mulk, Lady of the Empire, and was presented by the chronicles as the apple of her fathers eye, but even so, few could have then imagined the pivotal role she would play in the decades that followed.1
Sitt al-Mulk became a renowned entrepreneur of her time. She also wielded considerable political influence at the Fatimid court. At a time when these pursuits were considered to be the forte of men, the presentation of Sitt al-Mulks life and legacy in the sources must be understood in that light.油 As well, they need to take into consideration the religious, political and economic climate during the reign of her half-brother, the Fatimid Imam-Caliph, Hakim bi Amr Allah (d. 1021 C.E.). As has been stated, The full extent of Sitt al-Mulks rise to power ought to be measured against the background of the shifting balance of power amongst the fiercely rival factions who aimed to retain control of the court, along with its administrative and political institutions.油2
Sitt al-Mulks significant role extended to ensuring continuity of leadership during the vital moment of transition in leadership. On the death of Imam-Caliph al-Hakim, she was instrumental in securing the succession of her nephew, the Imam-Caliph al-Zahir, and acted as his regent, the de facto ruler of the state for the first few years of his rule until her death on 5 February 1023 C.E.
Queen Arwa al-Sayyida al-Hurra (d. 1138 C.E.)
During the Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir billahs (d. 1094 C.E.) 58-year rule, a powerful woman rose through the ranks to wield significant influence in the corridors of Fatimid power.油Sayyida Arwa bint Ahmad al-Sulayhi, also known as al-Sayyida al-Hurra, the Noble Lady, and al-Malika, the Queen of Yemen, was a significant figure in Ismaili history, having positions of power till her death in 1138 C.E. Additionally, her influence came once again to the fore in the immediate aftermath of the油Imam油al-Mustansirs death and ensuing crisis of succession amongst his sons.
History records that the Sulayhid dynasty emerged in Yemen during the Fatimid period. Prior to the inception of Fatimid rule in 909 C.E., its missionary activity, the油糸温w温t al-hadiya, rightly-guiding summons, had established a stronghold in Yemen. Under the Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir, leadership was vested in the油糸温i油Ali bin Muhammad al-Sulayhi (d. 1067 C.E.), a chieftain of the influential油Banu Hamdan, after whom the dynasty took its name. On his death, his son Ahmad al-Mukarram (d. 1084 C.E.) succeeded him. It was in the latter years of Ahmads reign when he fell ill, that his wife, Sayyida Arwa effectively held the reins of power.
The esteem in which she was held can be seen in her appointment by the油Imam油as the油hujja油of Yemen, a rank which, in the Fatimid hierarchy of religious leadership, was second only to that of the油Imam油himself. Al-Mustansir also charged her with the affairs of the油糸温w温油in western India around 460/1067, Yamani da平is were despatched to Gujarat under the close supervision of the油SulayhidsAn Ismaili dynasty in Yemen (1038-1138).. These da平is founded a new Ismaili community in Gujarat which in time grew into the present Tayyibi油Bohra油community.3
On the death of al-Mustansir however, conflicting historical accounts can be found surrounding the events that followed. The literary heritage of the communities who would come to follow two different sons of the油Imam油present differing narratives. The followers of Nizar b. al-Mustansir (d. 1095 C.E.), today known as the Nizari Ismailis, followers of油His Highness the油Aga KhanA title granted by the Shah of Persia to the then Ismaili Imam in 1818 and inherited by each of his successors to the Imamate.油as the 49th hereditary油Imam油in direct descent from the Prophet, upheld Nizars rights to succession as the originally designated heir who had been nominated by his father by way of油nass, explicit designation. According to the油Nizaris油therefore, his designation as the next Ismaili Imam-Caliph was final with the irrevocability of the油nass油a central tenet of Shi平i Ismaili doctrine.4
On the other hand, those who accepted the claims of Nizars younger half-brother, Abul-Qasim Ahmad to the Fatimid throne, became known as the Mustaalis, after his regnal title al-Musta平li billah (the one Elevated by God)5. The Mustalian Ismailis split into [two] branches on the assassination of al-Mustalis son and successor al-Amir in 1130.6油At this point, the Mustalian community of Sulayhid Yemen recognised the油imamate油of al-Amirs infant son al-Tayyib and became known as the油Tayyibiyya.7油It was to this lineage of Imam-Caliphs that Sayyida Arwa bint Sulayhi, pledged her allegiance and support.
Bibi Sarkara Maryam Khatoon (d. c. 1832 C.E.)
In the modern period of Nizari Ismaili history, sometimes known as the period of the Aga Khans, we see the power and influence of women once more, this time in the figure of one油Bibi油Sarkara Maryam Khatoon, also known as Mata Salamat, the title, meaning Mother of Peace. She was the wife of the 45th Ismaili油Imam, Shah Khalil Allah (d. 1817 C.E.) and mother of the 46th油Imam, Hasan Ali Shah,油Aga Khan油I (d. 1881 C.E.).
Since the split of the油Fatimids油into the油Tayyibis, who took control of the line of Imam-Caliphs in Egypt in 1094 C.E. and the Nizari Ismaili Imams and their followers, who also claimed that legacy, the latter sought refuge in the fortress of油Alamut油and other mountain fortresses in Iran. For close to 700 years at times under油taqiyyaPrecautionary dissimulation of one’s religious beliefs, especially in time of persecution or danger, a practice especially adopted by the Shi’i Muslims.油(precautionary dissimulation) and at others, more openly forging relations with the rulers of Persia 26 of the 49 Ismaili Imams resided in Persia. In approaching the end of the 18th century, a shift was underway. In 1817 C.E., the 45th油Imam, Shah Khalil Allah lost his life [when] a mob attacked the imams house. In the ensuing uproar, Shah Khalil Allah and several of his followers were murdered, and the imams house was plundered.8
At this critical juncture, it was Mata Salamat, the wife of the murdered油Imam油and mother of the 46th油Imam, Hasan Ali Shah, then aged 13 years, who confidently went to the court of the ruling Qajar dynasty in Tehran, to seek justice for her husband and son. It was as a result of her petition that the Qajar monarch, Fath Ali Shah, brought the Imams killers to justice. In addition to this, Mata Salamat secured land holdings for her son in Mahallat to ensure that the family was provided for and that the young Imams rights were preserved. The monarch also offered his daughter, Sarv-i Jahan Khanums hand in marriage to the 46th油Imam. It was at this point also that the title of Aga Khan, meaning Lord and Master was bestowed upon the young油Imam. To this day, the title has remained hereditary amongst the descendants of油Imam油Hasan Ali Shah. The Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 2017 of the 49th Ismaili油Imam,油Shah Karim al-Husayni, His Highness the油Aga Khan油IV (b. 1936 C.E.) also marked 200 years since the title油Aga Khan油had been bestowed on the 46th油Imam油in 1817.
During the 64-year-long油Imamat油of her son,油Imam油Hasan Ali Shah, he bestowed upon her the esteemed title of油Pir油and sent her to India to settle disputes within the community. It is recorded that she also delivered many sermons in the油JamatAssembly or religious congregation; also a term used by the Nizari Ismailis for their individual communities., facilitating its religious formation and development.油Pir油Mata Salamat thus embodied, like many women in the Ismaili Muslim油Jamat油today, the principles of strong female leadership, both in the communitys social as well as spiritual and religious growth and upliftment. She died in Kutch, India in 1851.
Sayyida Imam Begum (d. c. 1866 C.E.)油
During the time of the 46th Nizari Ismaili油Imam, Hasan Ali Shah,油Aga Khan油I (d. 1881 C.E.), there emerged a literary composer of devotional poems in the South Asian Ismaili community, known as Sayyida油Imam油Begum, who is recognised as one of the most well-known female composers of a genre of spiritual and devotional poems known as油ginans.
Historiographical traditions within the Ismaili community attribute the composition of these油乙庄稼温稼壊油to a series of Nizari Ismaili da平is, missionary-preachers, known as Pirs and Sayyids, who are believed to have been designated by the Ismaili Imams from as early as the 11th and 12th centuries with the mission of propagating the teachings of Satpanth or True Path in the Indian Subcontinent. Through their devotional compositions, the Pirs and Sayyids sought to highlight the significance of accepting the authority of the living Ismaili油Imam.
As explained by various authors, the油乙庄稼温稼壊油are powerful in imagery and symbolism drawn from the cultural milieu of the Indian Subcontinent.9油Rooted in multiple movements and discourses within the Subcontinent at the time, the油乙庄稼温稼壊油encompassed a wide variety of themes, many of which can be found in the compositions of Sayyida油Imam油Begum who was the last of the油乙庄稼温稼油composers and the only female figure in the Tradition.10油History records that she spent most of her life in or near Bombay, was an accomplished player of油壊温姻温稼乙庄油(the fiddle) and used to compose and sing油乙庄稼温稼壊油to the油逮温馨温a岳油as part of her duties to propagate the油糸温w温.11
According to one scholar, Sayyida油Imam油Begum composed a small number of油赫庄稼温稼壊油of great beauty, especially notable for their imploring tenderness and meditative intimacy.12油Focusing on these themes of love, devotion and a desirous yearning for union with the beloved, Sayyida油Imam油Begums油乙庄稼温稼壊油continue to be recited today throughout South Asian Nizari Ismaili communities today. She passed away in Karachi sometime around 1866 C.E.
Endnotes
- Jiwa, S.油The油Fatimids油2: Rule from Egypt油(I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2023), p. 58.
- Cortese, D. and Calderini, S.油油(Edinburgh University Press, 2006), p. 117.
- Daftary, F.油Ismaili in Medieval Muslim Societies油(I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2005), p. 80.
- Jiwa, S.油The油Fatimids油2: Rule from Egypt油(I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2023), p. 155.
- Jiwa, S.油The油Fatimids油2: Rule from Egypt油(I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2023), p. 154.
- Daftary, F.油Ismaili History and Intellectual Traditions油(Routledge, 2018), p. 29
- Daftary, F.油Ismaili History and Intellectual Traditions油(Routledge, 2018), p. 30
- Daftary, F.油The Ismailis. Their History and Doctrines.油Second Edition (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 463.
- Gillani, K.油油Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, Vol. 38, No. 2 (2004): 175-176.
- Nanji, A.油油(Caravan Books, 1978), p. 94.
- Nanji, A.油The Nizari Ismaili Tradition in the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent油(Caravan Books, 1978), p. 94.
- Esmail, A.油A Scent of Sandalwood.油Indo-Ismaili Religious Lyrics (Ginans) (Curzon Press, 2002), p. 13.
Image: an illustration from油Maqmt al-畍ar朝r朝.油Public domain.
Pabani, Nadim. “Women Who Have Impacted Ismaili History”油Lifelong Learning, 今叔利, 13 March 2024, /learning-centre/scholarly-contributions/lifelong-learning-articles/women-in-ismaili-history/
Pabani, Nadim. (2024, March 13) Women Who Have Impacted Ismaili History.油Lifelong Learning.油/learning-centre/scholarly-contributions/lifelong-learning-articles/women-in-ismaili-history/
Pabani, Nadim. “Women Who Have Impacted Ismaili History”油Lifelong Learning油(blog), 今叔利, March 13, 2024. /learning-centre/scholarly-contributions/lifelong-learning-articles/women-in-ismaili-history/.
Pabani, Nadim. 2024. “Women Who Have Impacted Ismaili History”油Lifelong Learning油(blog), 今叔利, March 13. /learning-centre/scholarly-contributions/lifelong-learning-articles/women-in-ismaili-history/.
